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🔶PUBLISH_DATE: 2026-05-08
🔶SEO_TITLE: Rayhunter Update: No Cell-Site Simulators Found at US Protests (Yet)
🔶META_DESCRIPTION: An update on EFF's Rayhunter project, which detects cell-site simulators, and its findings regarding protests in the US and surveillance internationally.
🔶CANONICAL_URL: https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2026/05/rayhunter-update-no-cell-site-simulators-found-us-protests-yet
🔶SITE_NAME: Electronic Frontier Foundation
🔶AUTHOR_NAME: EFF staff
🔶FEATURED_IMAGE_URL: (Ideally,a relevant image URL here,perhaps of rayhunter in use,a protest scene,or a cell tower. If not available, leave blank and add one in WordPress.)
🔶CATEGORIES: ["Privacy", "Surveillance", "technology", "Security", "Open Source"]
🔶TAGS: ["rayhunter", "Cell-Site Simulators", "IMSI Catchers", "Stingrays", "Protests", "Surveillance", "Privacy", "EFF", "Open Source", "Law Enforcement", "ICE", "FBI", "Warrants", "Location Data", "License Plate Readers", "Facial Recognition"]
🔶SERIES_NAME: Rayhunter Updates (If this is part of a series)
🔶SERIES_PART: (If this is part of a series, indicate the part number)
<div><p><span>A little over a year ago we released Rayhunter, our open source tool designed to detect cell-site simulators.We've been blown away by the level of community engagement on this project. It has been installed on thousands of devices (or so we estimate,we don't actually know as Rayhunter doesn't have any telemetry!). We have received dozens of packet captures, hundreds of improvements, both minor and major, documentation fixes, and bug reports from our open source community. This project is a testament to the power and impact of open source and community driven counter-surveillance. </span></p>
<p><span>If this is your first time hearing about Rayhunter, you can read our </span><a href="https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2025/03/meet-rayhunter-new-open-source-tool-eff-detect-cellular-spying"><span>declaration blog post here</span></a><span>. Or if you prefer, you can </span><a href="https://spectra.video/w/jt9rZHCU51Rh58cBD8oiP3"><span>watch our DEF CON talk</span></a><span>.In short, Rayhunter is an open source Linux program that runs on a variety of mobile hotspots (dedicated devices that use a cellular connection to give you Wi-Fi). Rayhunter's job is to look for </span><a href="https://sls.eff.org/technologies/cell-site-simulators-imsi-catchers"><span>cell-site simulators</span></a><span> (CSS), a tool police use to locate or identify people's cell phones, also known as IMSI catchers or Stingrays. Rayhunter analyzes the "handshakes" between your Rayhunter device and the cell towers it is indeed connected to for behaviors consistent with that of a CSS. When it finds potential evidence of a CSS it alerts the user with an indicator on the screen and possibly a push notification to their phone. </span></p>
<p><span>Understanding if CSS are being used to spy on protests is one of the main goals of the Rayhunter project.Thanks to members of our community bringing Rayhunter to dozens of protests, we are starting to get a picture of how CSS are currently being used in the US. So far Rayhunter has not turned up any evidence of cell-site simulators being used to spy on protests in the US - though we have found them in use elsewhere. </span></p>
<p class="pull-quote">So far Rayhunter has not turned up any evidence of cell-site simulators being used to spy on protests in the US. </p>
<p><span>There are a couple of caveats here. First, it's often impossible to prove a negative. Maybe Rayhunter just hasn't been at protests where CSS have been present. Maybe our detection signatures aren't picking up the techniques used by US law enforcement. But we've received reports from a lot of protests, including pro-Palestine protests, protests in Washington DC and los Angeles, as well as the 'No Kings' and '50501' protests all over the contry. So far, we haven't seen evidence of CSS use at any of them. </span></p>
<p><span>A big part of the reason for the lack of CSS at protests could be that </span><a href="https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2017/09/appeals-court-rules-against-warrantless-cell-site-simulator-surveillance"><span>some</span></a> <a href="https://www.aclum.org/en/publications/mass-high-court-requires-warrants-stingray-gps-phone-surveillance"><span>courts</span></a><span> have required a warrant for their use,and even law enforcement agencies not bound by these rulings have </span><a href="https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2015/09/finally-doj-reverses-course-and-will-get-warrants-stingrays?language=it"><span>policies</span></a><span> that require police to get a warrant. CSS are also costly to buy and use, requiring trained personnel to use </span><a href="https://www.documentcloud.org/documents/24733508-2024_ma-state-police_css-proposal_jacobs/?mode=document#document/p47"><span>nearly one million dollars worth of equipment</span></a><span>. </span></p>
<p><span>the fact is police also have potentially easier to use tools available. If the goal of using a CSS at a protest is to find out who was at the protest, police could use tools such as: </span></p>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://sls.eff.org/technologies/automated-license-plate-readers-alprs"><span>License plate readers</span></a><span> to track the vehicles arriving and leaving at the protest. </span></li>
<li><a href="https://www.eff.org/issues/location-data-brokers"><span>Location data brokers</span></a><span>such as Locate X and Fog Data Science, to track the phones of protestors by their mobile advertising IDs (MAID).</span></li>
<li><a href="https://sls.eff.org/technologies/forensic-extraction-tools"><span>Cellebrite and othre forensic extraction tools</span></a><span> to download all the data from phones of arrested protestors if they are able to unlock those phones. </span></li>
<li><a href="https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2024/08/federal-appeals-court-finds-geofence-warrants-are-categorically-unconstitutional"><span>Geofence warrants</span></a><span>which require internet companies like Google to disclose the identifiers of devices within a given location at a given time.</span></li>
<li><span><a href="https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2022/02/victory-another-lawsuit-proceeds-against-clearviews-face-surveillance">Facial recognition</a> such as Clearview AI to identify all present via public or private databases of peoples faces.</span></li>
<li><a href="https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2022/05/massachusetts-highest-court-upholds-cell-tower-dump-warrant"><span>Tower dumps from phone companies</span></a><span>which, similar to geofence warrants, require phone companies to turn over a list of all the phones connected to a certain tower at a certain time. </span></li>
</ul>
<p><span>We think, due to the lack of evidence of CSS being used, protestors can worry less about CSS and more about these other techniques. Luckily, the </span><a href="https://ssd.eff.org/module/your-security-plan"><span>actions one should take to protect themselves are</span></a><span> largely the same: </span></p>
<p><span>We feel pretty good about Rayhunter's detection engine, though there could still be things we are missing. Some of our confidence in Rayhunter's detection engine comes from the</span><a href="https://www.eff.org/wp/gotta-catch-em-all-understanding-how-imsi-catchers-exploit-cell-networks"> <span>research we have done into how CSS work</span></a><span>. But the majority of our confidence comes from testing Rayhunter against a commercial cell-site simulator thanks to our friends at</span><a href="https://cape.co"> <span>Cape</span></a><span>. Rayhunter detected every attack run by the commercial CSS. </span></p>
<h2><span>Where Rayhunter Has Detected Likely Surveillance</span></h2>
<p><span>Rayhunter users have found potential evidence of CSS being used in the wild, though not at protests.One of the most captivating examples that triggered multiple detections and even inspired us to write some new detection rules was at a cruise port in the Turks and Caicos Islands. the person who captured this data put the packet captures </span><a href="https://github.com/ZeroChaos-/rayhunter-traces"><span>online for other researchers to review</span></a><span>. </span></p>
<p><span>rayhunter users have detected likely CSS use in the US as well. We have received reports from Chicago and New York where our "IMSI Sent without authentication" signature was triggered multiple times over the course of a couple hours and then stopped. Neither report was in the vicinity of a protest. We feel fairly confident that these reports are indicative of a CSS being present, though we don't have any secondary evidence to back them up. </span></p>
<p><span>We have received other reports that have triggered our CSS detection signatures, but the above examples are the ones we feel most confident about. </span></p>
<p><span>We encourage people to keep using Rayhunter and continue bringing it to protests. Law enforcement trends can change over time and it is possible that some cities are using them more often than others (such as Fontana, California reportedly </span><a href="https://www.documentcloud.org/documents/24733508-2024_ma-state-police_css-proposal_jacobs/?mode=document#document/p14"><span>used their CSS over 300 times in two years</span></a><span>). We also know that </span><a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/the-wiretap/2025/09/09/how-ice-is-using-fake-cell-towers-to-spy-on-peoples-phones/"><span>ICE still uses CSS</span></a><span> and has recently renewed their contracts. Interestingly,in January,the FBI requested a warrant from the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court to use what was likely a CSS </span><a href="https://www.intelligence.gov/ic-on-the-record-database/declassified/odni-releases-january-2025-fisc-opinion-on-fisa-title-i"><span>and was rejected</span></a><span>. This was the first time the FBI has sought a warrant to use a CSS using the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act as 2015, when the Justice Department began requiring a warrant for their use. If police start using CSS to spy on protests we want to know.</span></p>
<p><span>There is still a lot we want to accomplish with Rayhunter,we have some future plans for the project that we are very excited to share with you in the near future,but the biggest thing we need right now is more testing outside of the United States. </span></p>
<h2><span>Taking Rayhunter International </span></h2>
<p><span>We are interested in getting Rayhunter data from every country to help us understand the global use of CSS and to refine our signatures. Just because CSS don't appear to be used to spy on protests in the US right now doesn't mean that is true everywhere. We have also seen that some signatures that work in the US are prone to false positives elsewhere (such as our 2G signature in countries that still have active 2G networks). The first device supported by Rayhunter, the Orbic hotspot, was US only, so we have very little international data. But we now have </span><a href="https://efforg.github.io/rayhunter/supported-devices.html"><span>support for multiple devices</span></a><span>! If you are interested in Rayhunter, but can't find a device that works in your country, </span><a href="https://efforg.github.io/rayhunter/support-feedback-community.html"><span>let us know</span></a><span>.</span> <b>We recommend you consult with an attorney in your country to determine whether running Rayhunter is likely to be legally risky or outlawed in your jurisdiction.</b></p>
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