- A study on Chinese court records from 2010 to 2023 discovered that pangolin scale seizures peaked in 2018 and have since decreased. Authors attribute this to increased enforcement and public awareness in China, but independent observers point to global factors such as the COVID-19 pandemic and stricter regulations in source and transit countries.
- The study pinpointed six critical cities in China—Bozhou, Chongzuo, Dehong, Beijing, Hong Kong, and Kunming—as major transit hubs for illegal pangolin scale trade, with most scales originating from Africa, particularly Nigeria, and smuggled via seaports and overland routes.
- The secretive nature of the trade, limited enforcement in rural and border regions, and underreporting suggest the true scale of the trade is likely much greater than reported, fueled by corruption and advanced smuggling techniques.
- Experts call for enhanced law enforcement, community engagement, outreach to traditional medicine practitioners, international cooperation, and legislative reforms to ban the domestic use of pangolin scales in traditional Chinese medicine and close wildlife trafficking loopholes.
An analysis of Chinese court records from 2010 to 2023 reveals that pangolin scale seizures in the country reached their peak in 2018 before gradually declining.
The study attributes this decline to heightened enforcement and public awareness in China. However, independent observers suggest that global factors, including the COVID-19 pandemic and stricter regulations in source and transit countries, also play significant roles. The clandestine nature of the trade and weak enforcement in some areas imply that the real scale of illegal activity is likely higher.
Researchers from South China Normal University examined 390 cases of illegal pangolin scale trade recorded from 2010 to 2023 in China Judgments Online, utilizing geospatial and statistical methods. The analysis indicates that the majority of seized scales originated in Africa, particularly Nigeria, and were routed through six key Chinese cities known for their traditional medicine markets, international trade links, and strategic locations.
China has taken several steps to curb wildlife trafficking, including partnerships with NGOs like WildAid to train law enforcement, nationwide crackdowns, international collaborations, and specialized antismuggling operations. In 2020, China banned the consumption of wild animals and upgraded pangolins to the highest protection level, along with imposing stricter trafficking penalties and removing pangolin scales from its official list of traditional medicine ingredients.
The Environmental Investigation Agency (EIA), however, offers a different perspective. EIA pangolin campaigner Erin Chong attributes the post-2018 decline in seizures to global factors, including the COVID-19 pandemic and enhanced awareness and enforcement in source and transit countries, suggesting that scales may not reach China as often.
According to EIA’s Crime Tracker data, pangolin scale seizures globally peaked in 2019, both in number of incidents and quantity seized. While the lowest quantity was recorded in 2023, seizures in 2024 showed a significant increase of approximately three tons.
Researchers acknowledge that their reported number of seized pangolins likely underestimates the true scale of the trade. This is because China Judgments Online only became fully operational in 2013, with mandatory public disclosures starting in 2014. Some recent cases may also be missing due to delayed judgments or other factors.
Olajumoke Morenikeji, West Africa chair of the Pangolin Specialist Group at the IUCN, agrees that the seizure data reflects only a fraction of the actual trade volume. She suggests that the true scale of China’s pangolin trade is almost certainly higher, citing corruption, weak enforcement, and sophisticated smuggling methods as enabling factors.
Data limitations, especially in rural areas and along porous borders where enforcement is weaker, contribute to underreporting. According to Morenikeji, if seizures represent only what authorities manage to intercept, the unseen portion of the trade is likely immense.
Major Trade Hubs and Routes in China
The study reveals that the illegal pangolin scale trade is concentrated in six major Chinese cities: Bozhou, Chongzuo, Dehong, Beijing, Hong Kong, and Kunming. These cities serve as key transit points, and without their participation, the study suggests that more than 90% of China’s illegal pangolin-trading network could be disrupted.
These cities have become key transit points due to various factors. Bozhou’s prominence is linked to its Chinese herbal medicine industry. Chongzuo, Dehong, and Kunming’s strategic locations along borders with neighboring Southeast Asian countries facilitate trade with these regions. Beijing and Hong Kong, as international hubs, also play significant roles.
Strengthening law enforcement in these cities will be crucial in dismantling the illegal pangolin scale trade in China.
The trade network extends from African countries like Nigeria, Ethiopia, Equatorial Guinea, the Democratic Republic of Congo, and Cameroon, to China and other Asian nations such as Indonesia, the Philippines, Malaysia, Vietnam, Laos, Pakistan, the United Arab Emirates, Nepal, and Myanmar.
The EIA’s Chong confirms that the study’s data aligns with EIA findings from open-source reports and intelligence.
Ninety-four percent of the 136,301 pangolins seized from 2010 to 2023 originated from African countries, with Nigeria being the primary source. Asia accounted for only 6% of the seized pangolins.
Pangolin scales from Africa were transported to China primarily via seaports, while scales from Asia entered through cars and mail. Within China, scales were mainly transported by cars and trucks, with notable routes involving Bozhou, Beijing, Baoding, and Tianjin.
To combat pangolin scale smuggling at Nigerian airports and seaports, Morenikeji recommends strengthening law enforcement through better inspections, intelligence profiling, and undercover operations, and deploying advanced technologies like AI scanners, wildlife forensics, and electronic cargo tracking.
Morenikeji emphasizes the importance of stronger border security, interagency collaboration, international cooperation, tougher legal measures, and engaging local communities and raising awareness to encourage more people to report illegal activities.
The researchers advocate for increased outreach to traditional Chinese medicine practitioners and legislation to ban the prescription of pangolin scales to reduce demand and protect the species. They also recommend more scientific studies on the pharmacological effects of pangolin scales to promote alternative treatments and reduce their use in medicine.
The EIA calls on China to comply with CITES by reporting pangolin stockpiles and submitting annual trade reports. It also urges China to amend its Wildlife Protection Law to close loopholes and shut down the legal domestic market for pangolin products, including their use in traditional Chinese medicine.
Banner image: Decades of exploitation have pushed all eight known pangolin species to the brink of extinction, with conservation statuses ranging from vulnerable to critically endangered on the IUCN Red List. Image by Bertoguide via Flickr (CC BY-NC 4.0).
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Citations:
Xi, F., Chao, X., Wu, S., & Zhang, F. (2025). Curbing the trade in pangolin scales in China by revealing the characteristics of the illegal trade network. Scientific Reports, 15(1).
